Sometimes reading about the Ammonites, Moabites, or Edomites in the Bible can seem to modern readers much like reading about people from Gondor, Rohan, or Mordor in The Lord of the Rings.  I find it helpful to contextualize the people and places I read about in the Bible by locating them on modern maps.  It helps remind me of the historicity of the accounts that are recorded in the pages of Scripture.  Unlike Tolkien’s fictional world of Middle Earth, the world of the Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites in the Bronze Age and Iron Age was very much a real world.  Archaeologists have learned much about these ancient peoples from the material remains they left.

So which modern-day country did the Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites inhabit?

The Kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, and Edom ca. 830 BC.
Photo credit: Richardprins / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-3.0 /

The answer is the modern-day kingdom of Jordan.  When we read in the Bible about things that happened on “the east side of the Jordan,” we’re reading about events that took place in present-day Jordan.

Every year many tourists flock to the Holy Land of Israel, without realizing that the Land of the Bible includes its neighbour Jordan.  Indeed, Todd Bolen of BiblePlaces.com notes, “You’re missing half of the story by not studying the east side of the Jordan River.”

So who were these ancient people who lived east of the Jordan River?

1) The Ammonites – The Bible describes the Ammonites as descending from the incestuous relationship between Lot and his younger daughter (Gn 19:38).  They were the frequent enemies of the Israelites, and Jephthah delivered Israel from their oppression in Judges 11.  During the Iron Age, their capital city was Rabbah (modern-day Amman, Jordan).  The remains of an Ammonite watch-tower can still be seen there today.

An Ammonite watchtower in Amman, Jordan dates to the 7th Century B.C.
Photo credit: Mrdrummond / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain /

2) The Moabites –  The Moabites were the descendants of Moab, the son of Lot by his older daughter (Gn. 19:37).  At times there appeared to be a peaceful coexistence between those from Moab and Judah.  In Ruth 1:1 we read, “In the days when the judges ruled, there was a famine in the land, and a man from Bethlehem in Judah, together with his wife and two sons, went to live for a while in the country of Moab.”  Ruth herself is perhaps the most famous Moabitess in the Bible.  Later, during the time of the kings the nations of Moab and Judah were enemies.  Both David (2 Ch 18:2) and Jehoshaphat (2 Ch 20:1) both fought against the Moabites.  One of the most famous archaeological artifacts is the Moabite Stone.  Discovered in 1868 in Dhiban, Jordan, the Moabite Stone (or Mesha Stele) confirms the events of 2 Kings 3 – the account of how Moab was subject to Israel, but rebelled. King Jehoram of Israel.  The inscription of King Mesha of Moab, tells the story from Moab’s perspective.

The Moabite Stone or Mesha Stele.
Photo credit: Daderot / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-3.0 /

3) Edomites – The Edomites were the descendants of  Esau, Jacob’s brother and at one time their kingdom covered parts of both southern Israel and southern Jordan.  “Because they were close relatives, the Israelites were forbidden to hate the Edomites (Dt 23:7). However, the Edomites regularly attacked Israel, and many wars were fought as a result. King Saul fought against the Edomites, and King David subjugated them, establishing military garrisons in Edom. 

The Edomite stronghold of Sela, located near modern-day Borzah, Jordan, is mentioned at least four times in Scripture and may be the place where Amaziah, King of Judah, slaughtered 10,000 Edomites  as described in 2 Ch 25:12 and 2 Ki 14:7.

The Edomite mountain stronghold of es-Sela. Photo credit: Bibleplaces.com

4) The Nabateans – No discussion of biblical people in Jordan would be complete without mentioning the Nabateans.  The rock-hewn city of Petra is arguably the most famous archaeological landmark in the country.  In New Testament times, the kingdom of Nabatea extended from Jordan to Saudi-Arabia.  The Nabataeans held a monopoly on the Frankincense trade, amassing considerable wealth from the sale of it from Petra. It is quite possible that the magi stopped at Petra to purchase the frankincense that they gave to Jesus, or at the very least, that it was Nabataean frankincense that was given.  The Nabatean King Aretas IV is mentioned in 2 Cor. 11:32-33.

The Treasury of the Nabatean city of Petra.
Photo Credit: Bernard Gagnon / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-3.0 /

Many other events in bible history took place in the modern-day country of Jordan, including:

• Jacob wrestled at the Jabbok
• The Israelites looked on the bronze serpent
• The Israelites defeated the army of Sihon
• Moses spoke the book of Deuteronomy
• Moses viewed the land from Mount Nebo
• Saul delivered the city of Jabesh Gilead
• Uriah the Hittite died because of David’s treachery
• David fled from his son Absalom
• Ahab was killed by the Arameans
• Jehu launched his coup
• Elijah was born and later ascended into heaven
• The prophets spoke against Ammon, Moab, and Edom
• John the Baptist ministered and baptized
• Herod Antipas beheaded John the Baptist
• Jesus traveled through Perea

Knowing where on modern maps these biblical people lived helps to underscore the fact that they were real people, whose archaeological remains confirm many details we read about in the Bible.  Ammon, Moab, and Edom are not Gondor, Rohan, and Mordor; unlike the mythical world of Tolkien’s Middle Earth these biblical places actually existed and we are learning more about the people who lived there each year through the many excavations that take place in the country of Jordan.

For those wanting to stay informed about archaeology in the country of Jordan, I recommend the following website:  http://archaeologyofjordan.strikingly.com/

This article was first published in the Winter 1998 issue of Bible and Spade.

Omri was commander-in-chief of the army of the Northern Kingdom of Israel under Elah, who ruled for two years, 886-885 BC. Zimri, an official in charge of half the chariot force, assassinated Elah in his palace in Tirzah, the capital. At the time, Omri was with his army at Gibbethon in Philistine territory. When news of the coup reached the camp, the Israelite soldiers immediately proclaimed Omri king. They marched to Tirzah and lay siege to the city. Just seven days after the coup, Zimri saw that the end was imminent and committed suicide by setting fire to the royal palace. Omri then took possession of the capital. His rule was not uncontested, however, for half the people supported Tibni for king. Omri prevailed, no doubt due to his military support, and ruled Israel for 12 years, 885-874 BC (1 Kgs 16:15-23).

Nothing is said in Scripture about the lineage of Omri. His name is either Amorite or Arabic (Thiel 1992: 17), suggesting he was a foreign mercenary. The name of his daughter, Athaliah (2 Kgs 8:26), contains the theophoric element for Yahweh, so he may have at least paid lip service to being a follower of the God of Israel. He established the second longest dynasty of the Northern Kingdom, 45 years. Following Omri, his son Ahab ruled 22 years, 874-853 (Wood 1996a), his grandson Ahaziah two years, 853-852, and a second grandson Joram 12 years, 852-841.

Because of Ahab's sin in the matter of Naboth's vineyard, God brought the dynasty to a bloody end by means of Jehu (1 Kgs 21:20-29). Jehu then began the longest dynasty for the Northern Kingdom, spanning five generations and 90 years. Other than these two dynasties, kingship in the Northern Kingdom was marred by a succession of bloody coups and much instability. In contrast, the Davidic line of Judah to the south continued nearly unbroken until the Babylonian exile, in keeping with God's promise to David (2 Sam 7:11-16).

The only break in the Davidic line came when Athaliah, Omri's granddaughter, usurped the throne and ruled for six years, 841-835 BC. She was married to Jehoram, crown prince of Judah, in a political marriage (2 Kgs 8:18, 25-26 ; 2 Chr 18:1). After Jehoram's rule, 848-841, Athaliah's son Ahaziah became king. His reign lasted but a year, however, since he fell victim to Jehu's coup in the north (2 Kgs 8:25-9:29). Athaliah then seized power and ruled until deposed six years later. The Davidic line was reestablished when Joash, the lone-survivor of Athaliah's purge, was placed on the throne (2 Kgs 11). Athaliah has the distinction of being the only queen to rule Israel or Judah.

Little is said of Omri's reign in the Bible. A total of 12 verses is devoted to him (1 Kgs 16:16-18, 21-28; 20:34), five of which relate how he came to power. The remaining seven tell of the length of his reign (16:23), how he established a new capital at Samaria (16:24), did evil in the eyes of the Lord (16:25-26), and that the king of Aram captured cities from him and set up markets in Samaria (20:34). Archaeology, however, has rounded out the picture, portraying Omri as one of the most powerful rulers of Israel.

Findings at Tirzah

Omri's first capital, Tirzah, has been identified as Tell el-Far'ah (North). This site was excavated by the École Biblique et Archéologique Française for nine seasons between 1946 and 1960 under the direction of Roland de Vaux. Stratum VIIb, was the city besieged by Omri. It had been destroyed by fire, with the thickness of the destruction layer reaching 1 m in some places (Chambon 1984: 38). After a period of abandonment, reconstruction began, apparently on the order of Omri. The main building consisted of a central courtyard surrounded by three large rooms. The walls were faced with stone on both sides and were reinforced on the front and at the corners by pilasters. A pilaster is a rectangular support projecting partially from the wall, with a base, shaft and capital. The structure was well built, using fine-dressed masonry, some of which was finished with a boss, or smoothed area, on the edges. The stones' oblique dressing resembles that of the masonry in the palace at Samaria, also constructed by Omri. Strangely enough, the building was never finished. Construction was abruptly halted as evidenced by abandoned building materials, partly dressed stones, and the absence of ruins (Chambon 1984: 39; 1993: 439). It appears that construction was discontinued halfway through Omri's reign when work began on the new capital, Samaria.

Findings at Samaria

The hill of Samaria was purchased by Omri and a new capital built there. There have been two major expeditions at Samaria. The first, from 1908 to 1910, was sponsored by Harvard University and directed by Clarence Fisher and George Reisner. The second was conducted from 1931 to 1935 by the British Academy, British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, Harvard University, Hebrew University and Palestine Exploration Fund, under the direction of John Crowfoot. A royal citadel was found on the summit of the hill. It was enclosed by two fortification walls, an inner, earlier, wall built by Omri, and an outer, later, wall built by Ahab. Omri's wall was 1.6 m wide and 89 x 178 m in size, covering an area of 4 acres. It was constructed of fine ashlar masonry laid in header-stretcher fashion and represents one of the finest examples of this type of construction in Palestine. The stones were fitted with the greatest of care. On the southwest side of the enclosure was a palace, built at the same time as the inner fortification wall and thus attributable to Omri. Constructed around a central courtyard, the preserved portion measured 24 x 27 m.

Samaria remained the capital of the Northern Kingdom until the Assyrian captivity in 721 BC.

Findings at Jezreel

The Bible states that during Ahab's reign, there was another royal palace at Jezreel, some 21 mi north of Samaria, overlooking the beautiful Jezreel Valley (1 Kgs 21:1; Wood 1992). Excavations sponsored by Tel Aviv University and the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem have been going on there since 1990, led by David Ussishkin and John Woodhouse. A royal citadel has been uncovered which is much larger than that at Samaria. The original builder of this impressive fortress was likely Omri. In style and scale, the fortifications are unparalleled in the Iron Age in Palestine. It is rectangular and surrounded by a casemate (double) wall with projecting towers at the corners, enclosing an area of 11 acres. Around three sides was a rock-cut moat measuring ca. 150 m long on the east side, 320 m on the south side and a minimum of 200 m on the west side. The moat was 8-12 m wide and nearly 6 m in depth in some places. Unfortunately, little has been found inside the enclosure due to destruction by later occupation. The site was abandoned at the end of the Omride dynasty.

What was the purpose of such a grand fortress and why wasn't it utilized by Jehu and his successors? The answer, Hugh Williamson believes, lies in politics and propaganda. Williamson argues that the fortress not only served a military function, but also a political one.

The amount of labour involved, particularly to quarry the moat and to pile up the ramparts, reminds us of the use of such grandiose public works as a means of social control and as a way of pressing claims of legitimacy.... The high visibility of the defensive strength of the fortifications seems indeed intended as much to overawe, if not to intimidate, the local population as it does to deter external aggression.... The location of Jezreel, right beside one of the main west-east routes through the kingdom and on the edge of the Jezreel Valley at the point where it gives way to the northern extreme of the central hill country, appears to owe more to considerations of who within the kingdom would pass by and see it than to defensive military considerations. (1996:49).

Then, when the Omride dynasty was overthrown, Jezreel was not utilized by Jehu because of its association with the previous administration.

As a symbol of the Omri dynasty par excellence, there could be no more effective way for Jehu and his dynasty to register their triumph than to abandon it. It is likely that it would have been at least partly demolished, but if this was by 'peaceful' means, then we should not be surprised that little trace of this remains in the archaeological record.' (Williamson 1996:50).

Literary Evidence

References in records outside the Bible reinforce the conclusion reached from the architectural remains, that Omri was indeed a powerful ruler.

846 BC, Mesha Inscription

Lines 7 and 8 of the Mesha Inscription read:

Omri had occupied the land of Medeba (northern Moab), and had dwelt there in his time (Albright 1969: 320; for a discussion of the Mesha Inscription, see Wood 1996b).

Other than how he came to power, and the fact that he established a new capital at Samaria, the Bible says nothing about Omri's accomplishments. For this, the reader is referred to the Book of the Annals of the Kings of Israel (1 Kgs 16:27), which, of course, we do not have. The Mesha Inscription, on the other hand, informs us that Omri expanded his holdings to include northern Moab east of the Jordan River, the tribal territories of Reuben and Gad. Mesha, king of Moab, won the land back in the days of Omri's grandson Joram (Wood 1996b: 57-58).

841 BC, Records of Shalmaneser III

The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III campaigned in Syria and along the Mediterranean coast in 841 BC. He required the defeated kings of the region to pay him tribute, including Jehu, king of Israel. Despite the fact that Jehu had put an end to the Omride dynasty, the accomplishments of Omri made such an impression on the Assyrians that Jehu was referred to as the 'son of Omri' in their records. An annalistic record states:

In the 18th year of my rule I crossed the Euphrates for the 16th time.... At that time I received the tribute of... Jehu, son of Omri (Oppenheim 1969:280).

Another record of the same event, the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, records, 'The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri...' (Oppenheim 1969:281).

732 BC, Annalistic Record of Tiglath-Pileser III

In 732 BC, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III campaigned in Israel, taking many captives. In their record of that event, the Assyrian scribes referred to Israel as 'Omri-Land,' over 100 years after the end of the Omride dynasty: 'Omri-Land... and its inhabitants and their possessions I led to Assyria' (Oppenheim 1969:284).

721 BC, Annalistic Record of Sargon II

Finally, because of their failure to follow God's ways, Samaria was captured and its citizens taken into captivity by the Assyrian king Sargon II. As with Tiglath-Pileser before him, his record of the event refers to the land of Israel as 'Omri-Land':

I conquered and sacked the towns of Shinuhtu and Samaria, and all Omri-Land (Oppenheim 1969:285).

Although Omri was a great military leader, administrator, and builder, and accumulated vast wealth, the Bible gives him low marks. Why? Because he failed in his spiritual responsibilities. He 'walked in all the ways of Jeroboam' (1 Kgs 16:26). In other words, he continued to foster the pagan worship Jeroboam, the first king of the Northern Kingdom, instituted at Dan and Bethel (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Omri, in fact, outdid Jeroboam, because he 'sinned more than all those before him' (1 Kgs 6:25).

In the final analysis, our lives are not judged by our wealth, or earthly accomplishments. We are judged, rather, by our walk with the Lord and our adherence to His ways. Jesus said, 'What good will it be for a man if he gains the whole world, yet forfeits his soul?' (Mt 16:26). 

Bibliography

Albright, W.F. 1969. "Palestinian Inscriptions." Pp. 320-22 in Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed., ed. J.B. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Chambon, A. 1984. Tell el-Far'ah I: L'Âge du Fer. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations.

———. 1993. "Far'ah, Tell el- (North): Late Bronze Age to the Roman Period." Pp. 439-40 in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, vol. 2, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society and Carta.

Oppenheim, A.L. 1969. "Babylonian and Assyrian Historical Texts." Pp. 265-317 in Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed., ed. J.B. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Thiel, W. 1992. "Omri." Pp. 17-20 in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 5, ed. D.N. Freedman. New York: Doubleday.

Williamson, H.G.M. 1996. "Tel Jezreel and the Dynasty of Omri." Palestine Exploration Quarterly 128: 41-51.

Wood, B.G. 1990-1991. "Excavations at Jezreel, 'City of Blood.'" Archaeology and Biblical Research 5: 123-24.

———. 1996a. "Bible Personages in Archaeology: Ahab the Israelite." Bible and Spade 9: 111-13.

———. 1996b. "Bible Personages in Archaeology: Mesha, King of Moab." Bible and Spade 9: 55-64.

This article was first published in the June 2004 ABR E-Newsletter.

What ever became of the so-called lost twelve tribes of Israel? In the Book of Kings (2 K 17: 6), we are told that during the reign of Hoshea a three-year siege was concluded against the capital city of Samaria. The mass deportations that followed were recorded in both the Bible and the annals of King Sargon of Assyria.

The Bible records that the survivors were taken away and resettled in Halah and Habor, on the river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes. The fate of these survivors is obscure. But it was the policy of the Neo-Assyrians to resettle civilian populations in other portions of the empire, these areas themselves having been previously depopulated following their conquest. The Assyrian kings also recorded the employment of captives in the construction of large-scale building projects. We can be sure that this was the case at Dur-Sharrukin, or the city of Sargon, modern Khorsabad.

The last chapter in the history of the kingdom of Israel had begun prior to its final reduction when the Assyrian empire pushed its conquests southward. The climactic events were set in motion in 722 BC when King Hoshea decided to test his mettle against the Assyrian colossus. He schemed with the king of Egypt and ceased payment of his annual tribute to Shalmaneser V. Hoshea was shut up and bound in prison (2 K 17:4), and Samaria put under siege about the year 722 B.C. It was left to Sargon II to carry out the final defeat of the city (Miller and Hayes 1986: 336-37). One of two Assyrian inscriptions dealing with the event describes the aftermath:

I besieged and conquered Samarina.
I took as booty 27,290 people who lived there.
I gathered 50 chariots from them.
And I taught the rest (of the deportees) their skills.
I set my governor over them, and
I imposed upon them the (same) tribute as the previous king
(Shalmaneser V). (ANET 284-5)

The number of deportees probably reflects the total taken from both the district of Samaria and the city itself. This marked the end of the Northern Kingdom. Though Sargon did not carry away the entire population of Israel, his actions were sufficient to put an end to its existence as a political entity and resulted in the annexation of the territory into the Assyrian Empire, which was renamed Bit-Humri (House of Omri).

Credit for the modern discovery of Dur-Sharrukin belongs to Paul Emile Botta who was appointed French Consul in Mosul, Iraq, in 1840. He had already taken a keen interest in the ancient mounds when he began soundings at Kuyunjik, ancient Nineveh. He was having little success there when one of his workmen reported that ancient sculptures had been found at Khorsabad, about 12 miles northeast of Kuyunjik. In 1843 he began excavations on the building now known as the palace of Sargon II. His success was immediate and rivaled those of Layard two years later at Numrud. He was assisted by an excellent draftsman by the name of E. Flandin, who recorded the large number of reliefs and other sculptures uncovered by the expedition.

After the initial campaigns by Botta, Layard had occasion to examine the site on two visits in 1846 and again in 1849. What he found at the site was a rapid depletion of the exposed remains. He remarked that since Botta's departure the chambers had been partly filled up by the falling in of trenches; the sculptures were rapidly perishing; and shortly, little will remain of this monument. On his second visit he continued in the same vein: of those reliefs which had been left exposed to the air after Botta's departure scarcely any traces remained (Albenda 1986: 28).

Botta dug the site until 1848, when he was reassigned to an obscure post in the Levant. He had by that time established that Kuyunjik was not the ancient city of Nineveh as originally thought.

In 1852 Botta was replaced by Victor Place and it is to his principle assistant Felix Thomas to whom can be credited the only surviving records of the major finds of the French expedition during that and the following years.

By the end of 1853, Place calculated that he had cleared 209 chambers, grouped around 31 courts, in addition to three temples and a small ziggurat. The circumference of the city walls were traced, in some places 24 meters thick on stone foundations with seven gateways, three of which had sculptured portal figures and 1 almost fully intact. The gate he numbered 3 on his plan had vaulted archways decorated in colored glaze.

By 1855 Place was ready to return to France when a disaster took place. The sculptures were transported safely as far as Baghdad where 235 cases were loaded on to a large country boat and two rafts with the destination of Basra. Near Kurnah, where the Tigris and Euphrates join together, the convoy was attacked by hostile tribesmen. All five vessels were overturned. Nevertheless, some 80 cases escaped the shipwreck, as well as two large sculptures now displayed in the Louvre. Fortunately, an earlier shipment sent by Botta had arrived safely with two winged-bull figures, which are today displayed in the British Museum. With the conclusion of Place's work at Khorsabad, European involvement came to an end.

Excavations were revived some 70 years later by Edward Chiera, a scholar of ancient Near Eastern languages at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago. His first season of exploration took place in 1927. After several seasons of work directed by Henri Frankfort and Gordon Loud between 1929 and 1934, work ceased and had not been renewed at a large-scale as of 1986.

In summarizing work at the site, Loud recounted that so complete was the removal of possessions or so thorough the pillaging at the time of abandonment that there remains practically nothing in the line of inscriptions or utensils whereby the buildings can be identified. Literally miles of walls forming groups of meaningless rooms are neither gratifying nor very instructive (Loud 1938).

A unique aspect of the site noted by Loud was the one-period nature of its deposits. No previous occupation was found at the site and only remains of squatters followed what appeared to be a complete and peaceful abandonment of the city. The average depth required to trace the buildings at Dur-Sharrukin was only about 1.50 meters. This made excavation relatively simple, but the city was denuded of whatever objects once adorned the architecture there. The excavator estimated that the city was occupied for only a year or two.

Since inscriptions indicate that construction of the city took eleven years to complete and was inaugurated with a great banquet feast accompanied by music and celebration, why would it be left vacant so quickly and thoroughly? What role did Israelites play in its building?

Bibliography

This article was first published in the Autumn 1996 issue of Bible and Spade.

The Sins of Ahab

Ahab, who ruled the northern kingdom for 22 years, ca. 874-853 BC, was perhaps the wickedest king of Israel. The Biblical record is anything but complimentary:

Ahab son of Omri did more evil in the eyes of the LORD than any of those before him.... Ahab ... did more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, to anger than did all the kings of Israel before him (1 Kgs 16:30, 33).

The Old Testament devotes approximately four chapters to Ahab's exploits (1 Kgs 18, 20-22), more than any other king of the northern kingdom of Israel. These chapters, however, are nothing more than a litany of his sins. Ahab married Jezebel, daughter of Ithbaal, king of Sidon, and began to worship Baal (1 Kgs 16:31-32). He was so taken up with this pagan deity that he built a temple in his honor in Samaria, which included an altar and Asherah pole (1 Kgs 16:32-33). Ahab's sins were so great that God brought a drought upon the land for three years (1 Kgs 17:1; 18:1, 16-18).

It was during the reign of Ahab that Elijah had the encounter with the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel (1 Kgs 18:16-40). Jezebel then sought his life, causing Elijah to flee to Mt. Horeb where the Lord appeared to him (1 Kgs 19:1-18). Israel was in conflict with the nation of Aram to the north in Ahab's day. Ahab successfully defeated Ben-Hadad, king of Aram, twice in battle, but sinned by not taking his life (1 Kgs 20).

In addition to his capital in Samaria, Ahab maintained a palace at Jezreel, some 21 mi to the north. Adjacent to his palace in Jezreel was a fine vineyard owned by Naboth, which Ahab desired. Through Jezebel's scheming, Naboth was killed and Ahab acquired the vineyard (1 Kgs 21:1-16). Ahab's entire family was condemned to death by Elijah for this act (1 Kgs 21:17-29). Ahab met his end in a battle against the Arameans at Ramoth Gilead (1 Kgs 22:1-36). His body was taken to Samaria where it was buried, and his bloody chariot was washed in a pool there (1 Kgs 22:37-38). The rest of his family was killed when Jehu overthrew Joram, Ahab's son, some 12 years later (2 Kgs 9-10).

Ahab and Shalmaneser

Ahab is one of a number of Israelite kings mentioned in Assyrian records. In his case, the record has to do with an event not mentioned in the Bible. A stela of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III was found in 1861 at Kurkh on the Tigris river in southeastern Turkey. It bears a relief carving of Shalmaneser and an inscription recording the principal events of his first six military campaigns. In the account of his sixth year, 853 BC, he describes a campaign to the west where he encountered a coalition of 12 states, including Israel. Shalmaneser engaged the coalition in battle at Qarqar on the river Orontes, in modern Syria, where he claims to have defeated them. Ahab is named in the stela as 'Ahab the Israelite.' He had one of the strongest forces in the coalition­ (2,000 chariots and 10,000 infantry­) attesting to the wealth and power of the Israelite kingdom at this time.

Ahab the Builder

According to the Bible, Ahab's rule was prosperous and he was a great builder. The findings of archaeology bear this out. We are told that he built a palace at Samaria and decorated it with ivory (1 Kgs 22:39). Excavations at Samaria have laid bare Ahab's palace. An earlier palace was built on the acropolis by Ahab's father Omri (1 Kgs 16:24). It was surrounded by a wall 5 ft thick. The royal quarter was later expanded by building a casemate (hollow) wall 32 ft wide outside the earlier wall. This is believed to be the work of Ahab. Within the compound was a building dubbed 'the ivory house' where many fragments of carved ivory plaques were found (see cover). This represents the most important collection of miniature art from the kingdom period found in Israel. The ivories appear to be remains of inlay originally placed on furniture in the palace of Ahab and later Israelite kings. Another interesting feature found in the royal compound was a pool in the northwest corner which could possibly be the pool referred to in Scripture where Ahab's chariot was washed.

Ahab is credited with fortifying a number of cities in his kingdom (1 Kgs 22:39). At Megiddo, Stratum IVA has been attributed to this king. There were a number of prominent structures associated with Stratum IVA, including an offset-inset fortification wall 12 ft wide, large pillared buildings, a palace, and a water system which included a 260 ft long tunnel. At Hazor, Stratum VIII is dated to the time of Ahab. As at Megiddo, the city was totally rebuilt at this time. A solid fortification wall 10 ft wide was constructed, along with a citadel, a large pillared building, and an underground water system. At Tel Dan, a well-preserved city gate was constructed in the days of Ahab in Stratum III. The high place, originally constructed by Jeroboam I (1 Kgs 12:28-30) and destroyed by Ben-Hadad king of Aram (1 Kgs 15:20), was reconstructed at this time.

All in all, archaeology has provided a great deal of evidence illuminating the reign of Ahab. It encompasses written, artifactual and architectural evidence, and fully substantiates the Biblical portrayal of this wicked, yet powerful, king.